Amphibian diversity in the Waterfalls of Lubuklinggau City, South Sumatra

Waterfalls and other watery locations are more often than not, frequented by amphibians, which are an integral part of any ecosystem. The paper by Samitra and Rozi (2021) investigates the diversity of amphibians at Temam and Sando Waterfalls, Lubuklinggau City. No trapping was used, only Visual Encounter Survey (VES) and time search methods, but some individuals were taken back to the lab for identification (and then relesed). Lubuklinggau City has a great diversity of habitats, everything from secondary forest to rice fields, meaning there are many potential locations for amphibians to be found. The focus here though are the Teman and Sando Waterfalls. Both sites are major tourist attractions, Teman has some convenience facilities, whilst Sando remains natural. Other research conducted in neighbouring areas, found significantly more species (11 compared to 55); however, there were several factors that were different between the studies, namely search hours and altitude. The difference in altitude would also make the ecology of the search areas different. The authors also conclude that the diversity at each waterfall is comparable to the other.

Google scholar search: 

Samitra, D. and Rozi, Z.F., 2021. Amphibian diversity in the Waterfall of Lubuklinggau City, South Sumatra. Jurnal Biota, 7(1), pp.10-16.

The environment in the 2020 pandemic

We all know how devastating Covid-19 was to humans globally, it held nothing back, showing no discrimination. Whilst the most obvious impact was to humans both health wise and economically, there was another victim, the environment. What though was the impact to the environment? We might not know for some years, some guesses can be made though. No flying for a year meant less CO2 emitted, fewer cars on the roads also contributed to this. People not being in offices lowered the demand for electricity. Fewer people in wild places reduced litter contamination and water pollution eased as not only was there less litter entering waterways, but also fewer chemicals from factories. Some of these balanced out with humans just being somewhere else; for example, humans were not in offices but in homes which also needed heating or power for computers as well as comforts such as hot food and drinks. Paudel (2021) has gone some way to quantify the Covid impact upon the environment focusing on forest fires in Nepal, South Asia.

Forest fires have numerous origins, from natural causes like lightening to anthropogenic causes. The paper uses satellite imaging to study factors such as heat intensity and forest fire incidence occurrence to identify what, if any influences Covid 19 has had upon anthropogenic fire incidence. The study found that the brightness of fires and the number of incidents reduced and actually lead to an economic gain of 360 Rupee's per household (~3 US$) (likely through reduced property/infrastructure damage costs). 

They also note the decrease in particulate matter (PM2.5) and NO2 in numerous cities globally. These short-term improvements can be no replacement for cooperation and improved management strategies or any forest nor important climate change work.

Paudel, J., 2021. Short-run environmental effects of COVID-19: Evidence from forest fires. World Development, 137, p.105120.

Forest loss in global protected areas

Protected areas are an essential component of conservation and climate change reduction. However, protected areas are not always as effective as they could be, this has previously been seen to correspond to gross domestic product (GDP), specifically where forested protected areas are concerned. The paper by Wolf et al (2021) aims to analyse the effectiveness of protected areas with regards to limiting forest loss.

They found that protected areas did reduce forest loss, but did not eliminate it completely. Those with the strictest management showed less deforestation than those with little to no management. The creation of new protected areas did see a slight increase in deforestation both within the protected area and in near by unprotected woodland.

Results show that protected areas within South Africa were the most effective in preventing forest loss. Protected areas with lower deforestation are expected to have other benefits, such as lower species loss, whether due to greater habitat availability or effective suppression of illegal hunting. As well as protecting biodiversity, protected areas also protect the immense carbon sink that is our forests. Deforestation not only stops this sink, but depending on the use of the wood, can also release the carbon back into the atmosphere. Reducing or preventing deforestation through protected areas is essential to tackle climate change.

Once again GDP was demonstrated to have a significant influence on the effectiveness of protected areas. The authors suggest that, to help maintain and improve protected areas, countries of higher GDP should assist those with lower GDP. This will aid actions such as species recovery/reintroduction as the acts can be done sooner rather than waiting for the GDP to increase to a point they can act themselves, by which point the species may be beyond saving, or be incapable of reintroduction.

Aichi Target 11: By 2020, at least 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water, and 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, with a focus on areas particularly important for biodiversity and ecosystem services. Areas are conserved through effective and equitable management as well as being ecologically representitive. Areas must also be well connected whilst merging seamlessly with the surrounding land and seascapes and coordinating with other conservation measures.

The Aichi Target was due for 2020, but the authors found that when corrected for with deforestation (effectiveness), current protected area was only around 6.5%. Again correcting for deforestation, or effectiveness, the authors find that the actual percentage of protected land needed is 41.3%. Clearly this target has not been met. Hope should not be lost, it is a goal that should be sought no matter how long it takes, but this should not lead us into complacency. Thinking that if met in 2050 it is fine too, no, the sooner the better.

Wolf, C., Levi, T., Ripple, W.J., Zárrate-Charry, D.A. and Betts, M.G., 2021. A forest loss report card for the world’s protected areas. Nature Ecology & Evolution, pp.1-10.

Convention on Biological Diversity - Target 11

Climate change impact to forest species adaptation and/or migration

Climate change means that many species are currently inhabiting an area that will become unsuitable to them (i.e. temperature and rain). These climatic alterations will require species to adapt, some rapidly so, otherwise they face local extinction (extirpation) or range constriction. The paper by Gougherty, Keller and Fitzpatrick (2021) studies the species balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera), looking at the flowering time genes. These are strongly connected to seasonal and cyclic behaviour in relation to climate.(phenology), they are crucial for ensuring population viability in future climates.

They found that populations at the centre of the range are best prepared for any of the three types of offset (change) discussed in the paper. These included: local adaptation with no migration, migration to anywhere else within the range (forward offset) and reverse offset where any of the current populations are already possess adaptations to potential future climates. In comparison to central populations, those in the eastern and northern most ranges are the most likely to experience extinction. It was identified that populations in the eastern most range would likely need to migrate around 5000km, an unlikely event naturally given seed and pollen dispersal limitations and the geography of the region.

The work of the team highlighted that for P. balsamifera the influence of temperature was secondary to that of changes in winter precipitation. This along with recent research in local adaptation contradict the presumed leading/trailing edge where poleward shifts were expected to see populations experiencing the first temperature changes outside of their normal range being the first to struggle.

A key take home message is that it is populations that adapt to climate change, not a species.

Gougherty, A.V., Keller, S.R. and Fitzpatrick, M.C., 2021. Maladaptation, migration and extirpation fuel climate change risk in a forest tree species. Nature Climate Change, 11(2), pp.166-171.

Pyrocumulonimbus clouds

Clouds, they evoke do many emotions and feelings; some good, like when you look up and see a cloud that looks like a fluffy bunny. Darker feelings of dread creep in when storm clouds rest on the horizon ready to pommel the water logged ground and crops.

Whilst most clouds are formed through the water cycle, some clouds have origins of a slightly different nature. Pyrocumulonimbus (pyroCb) are clouds connected to volcanic activity or fires. The intense heating of air ascends, condensing when the rising air becomes saturated due to cooling. They are quite common, leading to the formation of small clouds over fires in the environment, think of them like Frozen's Olaf's personal flurry, except they are created through intense heat.

For this article the focus will be on pyroCb clouds created by fires. Tory and Thurston (2015) conducted a literature review of pyroCb touching on how they are similar to thunderstorm (dynamics), but rather than requiring warm moist low-level air, the air needs to be warm and dry. They also discuss how the pollution in the clouds caused by the fire, delays rain and hail formation, resulting in the upper cloud regions containing significantly more snow and ice, far less hail in the middle regions and consequently less rainfall.

The presence of a pyroCb is potentially a serious issue, their presence has often been associated with fire behaviour that is highly unpredictable. It is discussed that this is primarily the case for buoyancy driven plumes, rather than bent plumes formed by wind driven fires. However, much of the evidence is generated from human observation and reveals the scope for further research into these speculations. Buoyancy plumes are thought to lead to indrafts, bringing fresh air to the fire, intensifying the flames.

Plumes can also carry burning embers or firebrands up and away from the main fire, to new dry areas creating new fires. PyroCb clouds have the potential to incite lighting that reaches from the cloud to the ground, this too can ignite new fires.

Overall the formation of pyroCb clouds requires significant volumes of fire heated air and a source of moisture from the environment or the fires fuel source is also necessary. It is primarily large fires that create pyroCb clouds, due to these large volumes of hot air required. Changing climates, has resulted in an increase of forest and grassland fires, the intensity and severity of these fires has also increased. As such, the formation of pyroCb clouds will likely also increase in frequency. In tern leading to fires that spread further and faster (due to cloud to ground lightening or the transportation of embers).

This was a review of the paper Tory, K.J. and Thurston, W., 2015. Pyrocumulonimbus: A literature review. Bushfire and Natural Hazards CRC: East Melbourne, VIC, Australia.

Further reading:

Fromm, M., Lindsey, D.T., Servranckx, R., Yue, G., Trickl, T., Sica, R., Doucet, P. and Godin-Beekmann, S., 2010. The untold story of pyrocumulonimbus. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 91(9), pp.1193-1210.

Peppermint enjoys the ecological benefits of green infrastructure

The benefits of green infrastructure for humans are clear but its not just us who feel their benefits. Any bit of green infrastructure acts as an island or corridor to many species who with the introduction or enlargement of a city would ordinarily be cut of from other areas of habitats and wider species populations. They provide habitats in which species can reside permanently or temporarily whilst on route to new territory i.e. when young birds leave the nest. Not only this but green infrastructure can act as a sanctuary during bad weather such as an exceptionally cold winter.

Peppermint helps at a community garden

Green rooves and vertical gardens are excellent ways to slip greenery into a city (or town) where space is limited. However, it’s not easy to stand in a vertical wall or green roof unless on a large building which you have easy access to. Therefore, parks are often the best place to go to and the only other option. Parks though do not provide an opportunity to get hands on and plant your own flowers or fruit and veg. This where community gardens/ allotments really come into their own. There are many across the country with most towns and cities having at least one. For some just being in the outdoors is sufficient, for others a hands-on approach is required to fully relax and unwind (adults and children). A hands-on approach is also helpful in teaching children where their food comes from and the importance of bees and other insects in pollinating not only wild flowers but also food crops. Enabling people from all backgrounds a chance to grow their own food and flowers or help others to do so, provides communities with a healthier, happier more respectful. Growing more of our own food locally also helps combat climate change by reducing stress on land and transport miles.

Peppermint looks to descend a vertical garden

It’s not just rooves which can be made green. Many new buildings are being designed with green walls already part of their infrastructure. The benefits of green walls also called vertical gardens, are similar to those of green rooves. Unlike green rooves however, green walls provide most of the benefits at our level (though shed rooves are not far off). As well as taking carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere closer to where we breathe they are also more visible as we go through our day than green/ garden rooves. Standing in a roof garden is far easier than standing in a vertical one though.

Peppermint explores a roof jungle

Last week we looked at the broad  topic of green infrastructure, today is a closer look at green rooves. No these are not rooves which have been painted green, they’re rooves which have what is effectively a raised bed on the top (in small scale cases) or a full garden i.e. on skyscrapers. Small scale green rooves are great for a little cheer but also reducing rain runoff into drains and so helps to reduce flooding. Larger scale projects provide people with an escape from work and other daily stresses. As well as mental health benefits larger green rooves i.e. those with trees and shrubs, also help to reduce carbon dioxide and other small particle levels.

Peppermint enjoys green infrastructure

Daily life is becoming more stressful with very few being able to go through their week without stress levels reaching critical levels at least once. As well as work becoming more stressful, it is also becoming harder for many to switch off from the work mindset. It has been proven in many [peer reviewed] studies that getting into nature can reduce stress levels and aid concentration. So, urban planners are starting to incorporate more green infrastructure into their models. Green infrastructure refers to anything from street trees to parks. Not only can it help improve mental health but physical health will also be improved. Trees in particular but also hedges and shrubs help reduce carbon dioxide levels as well as other pm2.5 -10 (particulate matter). These are microscopic particles which enter the lungs and given their size can get very deep influencing lung function. For us to live healthy happy lives, these particles must be kept at or below safe recommended levels. This is why green infrastructure is so important.

Peppermint looks at climate lag

Though climate is continuously recorded the changes created by various factors is often negligible for a long time, such as the effects of increased greenhouse gases. The time it takes for changes to occur to a measurable state is called climate lag. This lag is normally caused by feedback and adjustments in complex environmental systems (some we still don't fully understand). Climate lag can mean that despite our best efforts the things we do to reverse/reduce climate change, appear not to work. Similarly, we also do not know if something we are doing is harmful and so exacerbating climate change.

Peppermint helps with habitat restoration

Following a look at seed banks Peppermint is looking at habitat restoration. Also called rewilding, habitat restoration is an important way to combat climate change and its impacts. By returning an area of land to its original state species numbers can be increased, reducing extinction risk. Afforestation will also help to reduce carbon dioxide levels, clean the air and stabilize slopes, among other benefits.

Peppermint makes a deposit to the seed bank

Climate change means that many species are struggling. So, whilst Peppermint isn’t quite doing it correctly, he is on the right lines. A seed bank means storage and preservation of seeds, a gene bank of plants. It is one of the best ways of ex situ (off site) conservation of plants as the seeds take much less space and do not need the same sort of care as a full plant. They still need care to ensure viable seeds but not the watering and feeding like growing plants. Loss of plant species does not just mean loss of potential medical breakthroughs but also loss of whole ecosystems.

#climate #blogging #environment #environmintleaf #peppermintthecandycanezebra

Peppermint and climate change

It is time now to look at climate change and whether you are a firm believer or a skeptic, Peppermint and I believe some important facts and factors are being missed out. One fact in particular is not covered much for the public. That is that climate change would happen anyway. It is often used as a climate change skeptic excuse. However, what they generally forget to say is that natural climate change takes 1000’s of years if not 100, 000’s. What we are experiencing now and why we are to blame is anthropogenic (human) climate change. As in the unnatural levels of carbon dioxide, deforestation and other pollution types are all caused by humans. Otherwise the planet is in a balanced state that gradually changes allowing evolution and adaptation to occur. So yes, climate change is a natural cycle but current climate change is anything but natural and that is the problem.

#climate #blogging #environment #environmintleaf #peppermintthecandycanezebra

Peppermint and climate modifiers

Having last looked at species communities influenced by climate, Peppermint is now having a look at climate modifiers and climate modification. Climate modification can have both natural and human (anthropogenic) causes. Natural causes include volcanic eruptions, sun spot activity or El Niño Southern Oscillation event. El Niño for example has been linked to colder, wetter winters in areas of the USA whilst Africa has seen droughts. Human influences predominantly refer to pollution and deforestation. These changes can also be referred to as climate change however, most natural changes such as El Niño are only temporary, lasting in El Niño’s case for up to 18 months. Human influences though are likely to be more long term unless something is done to reverse it i.e. afforestation.

#climate #blogging #environment #environmintleaf #peppermintthecandycanezebra

Peppermint investigates climates past and present

Vegetation changes over time and so does the climate just a lot more slowly. So that we can attempt to predict what will happen in the future scientists must understand the past. So, they look to places which will contain elements from the past. Soil and ice preserve both organic and inorganic samples so well scientist are able to use them for climate analysis. Pollen is an excellent example of an organic element which survives and can be used in climate reconstructions. Pollen shows what species were in the surrounding area where the sample was taken, as you go down (or up) the core profile species composition will alter. The level of change varies form place to place, in some the change is rapid i.e. over 100’s of years whilst in others it’s closer to 1000’s or 10,000 years. Ice cores are best for atmospheric analysis, bubbles of gas get trapped in the ice as snow falls, These bubbles contain the gasses in the atmosphere at time of deposition thus, the atmosphere composition and so the climate can be extrapolated.

Peppermint investigates climax communities

So climate is the average weather over many years, this means that the species found there have to be well adapted to them. For most climates the vegetation goes through stages, starting with colonisers. For example, in a temperate region on bare rocks the colonisers will consist of lichens and some mosses, when they die and breakdown soil starts to accumulate. As the soil deepens larger more complicated plant species, such as flowering plants. Once deep enough shrubs and trees can grow, when species such as but not limited to, Oak grow this is considered the climax community (also called the climatic climax community). For most temperate regions woodland is the climax though it varies with altitude (i.e. higher up mountains will be limited to small alpine plants). The substrate will influence the start of the succession but as long as soil can accumulate then the climax community will be the same. Sand dunes for example start with small plants but as they push inland soil depth increases until trees can grown.

#climate #climaxcommunity #blogging #environment #environmintleaf #peppermintthecandycanezebra

Peppermint is looking at climate’s past

Peppermint has shown us the difference between weather and climate so now you can have a go looking into your own local climate. Remembering that climate is over many years the best way to find out what it was like (unless you fancy surfing climate records) is to ask a family member such as a parent or grandparent. The bigger the age gap between you and them the better as this will give you an idea of changes or similarities. If you are curious or no longer live near family, ask people from other countries. You will see that climate varies greatly across the globe, whilst weather types are globally similar but vary when they occur (i.e. time of year), how intense the event and how often. #climate #blogging #environment #environmintleaf #peppermintthecandycanezebra

Peppermint begins a journey looking at climate

Before touching on climate change next month Peppermint wanted to look at some aspects of climate. Whilst many will know and understand the difference between climate and weather it is important to recognize that some will not. As the base for understanding climate change it is important to comprehend the basics, which is why for some todays post may seem simple and unnecessary, for others though it is not. Peppermint wants everyone to understand environmental issues including the youngest people you know so share this with them and see if knowing the difference between climate and weather is as common knowledge as you think.

Beyond having a basic understanding for what we are being told on the news. Knowing how our climate has changed in our own lifetime can teach us about the potential problems of the future. Problems such as ecosystem migration could alter many lifestyles across the globe and create many problems for industry sectors such as agriculture. Whilst the measurement of climate is not strictly over 30 years it should not be any less otherwise the data gathered could be skewed by abnormal events. For example, this year the UK has experienced one of the hottest Februarys on record. So many factors have influenced this and it may or may not happen again for many years. Therefore, it cannot be considered part of the UK climate until it is an occurrence in most years. This may happen, natural events such as spring bulbs breaking through, are beginning to happen up to four weeks earlier.

 #climate #blogging #environment #environmintleaf #peppermintthecandycanezebra

Peppermint defines Sustainable Use

We’ve looked at having a sustainable diet and making our own activities and choices more sustainable. Now its time to look at the resources we use to make other products. Sustainable use means protecting the resource for the future, just like last week the best example to explain this is forestry. Tree products have so many uses, if a forest (a renewable resource) is not utilised in a sustainable way it will soon disappear leaving companies high and dry. Sustainable use of a forest means that the number of trees felled are already being replaced with new planting whether in the same area or elsewhere on the plantation. Ecosystems and organisms are also renewable resources and must be used sustainably so that species do not become extinct. #sustainable #sustainability #blogging #sustainableuse #ecofriendly #shoplocal #environment #environmintleaf #peppermintthecandycanezebra